Czechoslovakia
This country's history has it’s roots in the early Middle ages during the time when migratory tribes within central Europe had begun a pattern of southward expansion into the vast forested plains situated north of the Danube River. Categorically this mixture of people whose origins emerged from the territory north of present day Ukraine, near the Baltic Sea and whom shared similar language dialects as well as physical attributes with one another have long since been described as Slavic ethnicity. Early on, having occupied this more northeasterly region alongside Russia, Belarus and eastern Polish territory, their continental spread farther into eastern Europe began predominantly in the seventh and eighth centuries.
By the ninth century, various sects of tribes had developed prominent settlements in large stretches of formerly unoccupied land. This gap that they came to occupy included much of central and eastern Europe that laid between the spheres of influence of the western German Frankish Empire and that of the Byzantine powers located to the east in Constantinople. Germanic people during the early to high Middle Ages were a developed yet fearful group who were largely presided over by the Carolingian Frank emperors and then the rule of King Charlemagne and his ancestors. Byzantium was a distinct civilization that had once been part of the early Roman Empire but separated into it’s own power where neoclassical, Greek influence was emphasized rather than that of Latin as was most common by the western orders of Europe during the middle ages.
Arrival of the several Slavic tribes into central Eastern Europe provided a rather non confrontational means for these groups such as the Czechs, Slovaks and Poles to establish an early inhabitance for themselves. The latter of these groups maintained their territorial claim slightly more to the north while the Czechs and Slovaks established a settlement split geographical among three adjacent regions of land known as Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia. The largest and farthest to the south was Slovakia which is situated north of the Danube River and consists of territorial plains in the west before becoming part of the rugged Carpathian Mountain region farther to the east.
Second in size of these early defined territories is Bohemia which is marked with a diversity of landscapes including popularly recognized forestry as an extension of the eastern German lands such as Bavaria but also includes many rivers, lakes and mountainous areas. To the east is Moravia which possesses a similar geography to Bohemia but a more distant location from western Europe that secured it from the threat of German aggression that periodically confronted the people of Bohemia beginning in the ninth century. Moravia proved to be the most capable in creating autonomous rule for itself likely as a result of it’s protected geographical advantage and for the fact that more effective leaders seemed to arise from this region during the early Slavic period.
The first example of Moravian self rule, from about 625- 660, existed under the founding of Samo who is believed to have been a nobleman prior to establishing his administrative authority. The challenge of preserving such rule wasn’t marred by much internal resistance but rather that of the external warring inhabitants known as the Avars who were located to the northeast. This group of savage nomadic tribesmen were once descendants of the vicious east Asian Huns whose conquests had for several centuries brought them across Eurasian territory during the early Middle Ages and established a rather formidable presence east of the north German lands. The Avars would remain a tribal threat for centuries to come.
As the first millennia approached the strength of the Frankish and German civilizations would not be easily undermined in facing mutual enemies such as the Avars as the large European empires had been cooperative in defending against major external threats. Additionally, these major European powers particularly Germany, with it’s proximity to the formation of these ethnically joined Slavik communities disrupted the process of establishing autonomous statehoods for mainly for the Czech and Slovak groups. But the growth of Christianity during the ninth century had began to exert an influence upon Bohemia, Slovakia and most of all Moravia, which helped to bridge the relations of these Slavic territories with that of the two predominate hubs of ecclesiastical authority operating in Europe at the time. These bastions of religious power largely represented the east and west split of the Roman Empire from 323AD as the Catholic leaders from Rome subscribed to a Latin theology while Orthodox doctrine often taught in Greek comprised the ministries of Constantinople in the east.
Thus situated in between these two distant, continental powers offered the central Slovak societies a confidant source of protection during an era when imperial evangelization provided the opportunity to coordinate an alliance with one of these two systems of belief. Czechs and Slovaks in the earlier years tended to look east for its religious guidance starting around 860. It was around this time due to the backing of the Byzantine powers that the beginning of a Moravian state came into being under the rule of Ratislav.
For decades Ratislav’s predecessor, Mojmir, had defended the land around Moravia from falling to the hands of German Empire but largely on the basis of having to make tributary payments to it’s powerful neighbor. In reaction to these years of Frank and German demands upon the Slavic territories, seeking to ally with the Byzantine Church whose imperial powers would offer some protection was a logical move. Ratislav was soon able to discover an advantage in agreeing to cooperation with the Byzantine powers that helped counter the more territorially ambitions of western Europe who’s religious cues presided from Rome.
Thus in establishing a largely autonomous Moravia with support from the Byzantine Empire in the mid ninth century, Ratislav agreed to receive missionaries from the Eastern dioceses conforming themselves to the Greek Orthodox style of beliefs. This further separated Moravia from any affiliation with the Frankish Empire for a period of time.
Securing the Byzantine alliance permitted Moravia a large degree of self rule so long as the state continued submitting tributary payments to the Byzantine Empire, a more favorable position than waging frequent disputes with the imperial German powers. Two important religious figures, Methodius and Cyril, arrived as deacons to lay greater foundation of the east Orthodox religious principles upon Moravia in 863. Their effort, as was customary at the time, involved constructing cathedrals and introducing new teachings which went beyond purely clerical doctrine but involved secular knowledge derived largely of Greek academia. Teachings were adapted into a language and cultural style similar to the Slavic customs of the region. Of monumental importance during this assimilation was the formation of the Cyrillic language named for it’s teacher. It transformed the older purely Slavic alphabet into an adaptation with that of the Greek language to create what would become the modern alphabet used today for Christian Slavs including the Balkan people, Serbs and Russians.
During Ratslav’s rule, Moravia expanded it’s territory over parts of it’s western neighbor, Bohemia, while also growing in the east towards the Tisza river. This encompassed a larger territory that abutted the western border the formidable Bulgur civilization and passing north into the Carpathian Mountains. The territorial expansion can be deemed as the first Czech state of considerable power.
A brutal leadership change though would take effect in 870 when Rastislav’s nephew, Svatopluk chose to make himself ruler of the Moravian Kingdom by having his Uncle blinded. This [in fighting term]…. Ploy provided it’s perpetrator with the intended effect where Svatopluk embarked upon a self determined style of rule that broke the former alliance with Constantinople in favor of seeking agreements with the Frank ruler Louis the German. That too was only temporary though as Svatopluk after about three years forced out the Germanic occupation from Bohemia which had fallen under greater control and a treaty acknowledging the state’s independence was signed by the Frank ruler in 874.
For more than twenty years Svatopluk ruled to large success in resisting any provocations from the west while also keeping at bay the surrounding regional threats including the eastern Buglers and Magyars who were recognized for their prowess on the battlefield. But sustaining the strength of the Moravian army after the aggressive era of Svatoupluk’s rule was too much for his successors who in 900 became stymied in their own struggles for leadership while being confronted by invasions upon Czech’s extended borders. The Magyars soon demonstrated a nearly unrivaled ability to conquer in the early tenth century as they cooperated with orders from the German King to provoke wars within Greater Moravia. A consequential loss of Czech control resulted for large territories in Bohemia, that of southern Moravia near the Danube, and any lands in proximity to eastern Germany that the Empire felt uncomfortable being out of her control.
For what’s considered the first of Moravian downfalls helped to boast the land of Bohemia to take concerted steps towards stabilizing itself through terms of protection with German powers to thwart the tide of Magyar invasions. Duke Borivoj efforts led the efforts from the town of Prague in the late ninth century. In accordance with the imperial demands, Bohemia accepted the Germany authority which increased the Roman Catholic teachings from the west in contrast to that of the earlier Greek Orthodox culture that nonetheless helped spawn some early civic development.
The timing of the Czech region’s need to look west for protection during the early tenth century can be deemed fortuitous as the Germany leader at the time was Otto II. His style of rule wasn’t overly consumed with acquiring control farther past it’s existing eastern borders thus alleviating some concern for the Czech desire gain regional sovereignty. Otto II’s primary agenda was centralizing the preexisting order of imperial Germany territory and fending off the Magyar threats in the east. Thus under Borivoj and his brother Boleslav, the area of Bohemia managed to create a reasonable power bent largely upon administering itself and annexing the neighboring territory that had been part of Greater Moravia a few decades earlier.
The religious policy by then had transitioned completely to a western guidance. Either the Roman papacy or the official German clergy were in positions to implement their clerical duties upon the Czech Slavic state based on the terms negotiated while being under German protection. Establishing ecclesiastical posts from the German based papacy usually meant more direct involvement and interference by the Western Empire whereas a Roman based clergy was less prone to exert matters outside of religious business. To the dismay of greater Czech independence however, the German papal order was assigned prescience to varying degrees over Bohemian religious affairs until around 1600.
For a while though the advantage of less rigorous oversight by Otto II than had previously been the ways of German emperors continued. Boleslav I managed to bridge a relationship with the northern region that largely consisted of Slavic Polish groups. When the whole of this assimilation of ethnic people is considered, historians have referred to this conglomerated population as Western Slavic as to differentiate them from the various Slavic tribes who had come to inhabit the Balkan region, thus adopting the description as Southern Slavs.
Boleslav’s efforts to forge relations with the Poles were mildly successful. The Poles had similarly established themselves in somewhat of a less modern, less externally influenced civilization compared to that of the Moravian and Bohemians. Nonetheless they maintained a noble class mostly whom resided among several of the larger developed towns such as Ponznan, Cracow and the capital at the time, Gniezno. What started as a cooperative alliance between the two bordering regions initiated an official indoctrination of Christianity to the noble class of Polish people. A major diplomatic marriage between the two areas was struck through the hand of Boleslav’s daughter with a Polish prince named Miesko. An amicable bond between the Polish and Bohemian powers though soon languished and led to conflict for territorial control between the two states.
The Polish region accepted papal rule from the order of Rome which as mentioned above had the effect of limiting their influence from the German Empire. Miesko’s successor over the Poles was Boleslaw, coincidentally a nearly identical to the Czech Emperor during the same time, Boleslav. Boleslaw was weary of the closeness of the two states particularly with the preponderance of power of the noble class in Prague. Following the death of the Czech Boleslav II, his successor Boleslav III soon came to find his land under attack by it’s northern neighbor under the direction of Boleslaw who soon added the ‘the Bold’ as a surname. The success of the Polish army under Boleslaw, the Bold resulted in the surrender of the Czech capital of Prague. This conquest though was short lived as German forces were ordered by Emperor Henry II to dispel the occupation.
Polish gains prevailed nonetheless as they managed to occupy other important lands of the Bohemian state such large parts of Slovakia in the southeast, Cracow and parts of Moravia. Thus the Czech’s necessity to seek stronger protection from Germany provided defensive stability but precluded it’s capacity to completely govern itself.
A reversal of events took place several decades later when the Czech ruler, Bretislav I. also known as ‘the Restorer’ re-conquered all of Moravia, Cracow and occupied the major Polish cities of Poznan and Gniezno. This conquest though fell to another intervention of the German powers for a return of the cities back to Poland effectively forbidding either one of the two states from amassing too much territorial control. The land of Slovakia under Bretislav had also been a much desired region to reclaim but the emergence of noble Hapsburg power in Austria farther to the south had convincingly enveloped the area which would keep Slovakia as part of Hapsburg territory until dissolution of the Monarch in 1918.
Brestislav’s son, Vratislav, took power around 1080. His decision to support the German effort of fighting despondent regions in correspondence with the ambitions of growing the Holy Roman Empire was viewed favorable by Henry IV at the time. For the Czech assistance that Vratislav provided to the HRE war effort was awarded by crowning Vratislav as the King of Bohemia. This title acknowledged an essence of state sovereignty from the German Empire but with expectations that Bohemia would exercise loyalty and the likelihood of future interference. More significantly though, the sovereign title bestowed upon Bohemia substantiated a cooperative relation that would permit the Czech region to occupy to varying degrees an important place in the history of East Central Europe during the Middle Ages.
The succession of kings lasted for several centuries, casting a great importance upon the Czech land as it maintained good terms with the emperors of the German HRE. When dissent did invoke any problematic effects for Bohemia during the 12th to 14th century, it was more a result of internal disruption with the noble class enacting preventive measures against the king from amassing to great of power. The issue though was largely contained and didn’t present significant ramifications for the well being of the greater Czech Bohemian Kingdom.
Several of the notable kings during the high to late Middle Ages, acquired great power regionally with Prmysl Okatar II being the most significant. The balance of Western powers centered between Rome and the German centers in Salzburg and…. The Imperial leader of the HRE at the time of Okatar II’s coronation in 1212 was Otto IV who was leaning towards more power being instilled upon Rome’s clerical administration for the rest of Central Europe. This further brought less interference from the German emperors upon Czech rule, lessening the tributary payments that the Bohemian state remitted and even positioned Okatar II in line to occupy the Austrian succession of kings which he did briefly. This empowerment extended the geographical territory of Bohemia further south until 1278 when a decisive battle resulted defeat of the Czech forces against the Hapsburg army.
The national development that had occurred within the Bohemian region where abundant silver resources provided significant wealth to the state and an established administrative system capable of presiding over foreign regions at various times such as in Poland, Austria and even further south towards the Adriatic Sea poised the Czech state as an even more legitimate power with potential to become the capital for the Holy Roman Empire should a worthy enough leader ascend to the Bohemian throne. Such a formidable leader by the name of Charles IV did arise to succession in 1333. He was a son of the German Emperor John who wed a Bohemian Princess with family lineage to the important dynastic Prmsyl Kings dating back to the Czech leaders since the ninth century. Charles II thus represented a mixed nationality favorable to his chances of representing legitimate leadership of the HRE. The title of emperor was thus bestowed upon him in 1346 after presiding for 12 years as the Bohemian King and demonstrating loyalty to the Frankish German alliance in the early phase of the Hundred Years War.
Prague was then becoming a major center in Europe. The amount of German immigration into the Czech lands at that point was considerable bringing skilled workers, artisans and greater means to enhance commercial interests. Cultural and religious developments such as gothic architecture, paintings and a major location for the archdiocese had dramatic effects for the modernization of Prague as a central European power base. The first major university of eastern Europe was established there in 1348. The mid to late 14th century culminated the gradual development and ongoing consistency that Bohemia and her surrounding territory had exhibited since it’s early foundations of Slavic tribal beginnings to one of the most incorporated locations of European importance during the late Middle Ages.
The seeds of conflict as a precursor to the 16th century Protestant Reformation began to appear in major areas of the Bohemian Kingdom beginning around the early 1400’s. Contention over the privileged baron class of nobles who often imposed feudal burdens upon peasants as well as members of the various trade guilds provoked a divided society that prompted greater momentum for the gentry classes to stand against their oppressors. In conjunction with the nobility, was the high Catholic priests whose clerical privileges were becoming viewed with greater intolerance by the commoners including the selling of indulgences, refusal of the laity to partake in the Eucharist(communion) and the deviation of literal biblical teachings.
From this dissent emerged what became known as the Hussite Age named after John Hus, the predominate figure at the University of Prague to exert major action the class disparity. The formation of an activist movement made up of conciliar groups had gained popular support in opposing the Catholic and baronial class. The churches had become somewhat reformed throughout the years of the movement’s undertaking.
But in 1415, King Wenceslas, in compliance with western powers, ordered the death of John Hus as a heretic. This only brought greater outrage amongst the people and when the King died in 1419, a radical movement, under the leadership of Jan Zizka, transpired named for the town of Tabor where it had originated. The Taborites were immensely successful in defending against the crusaders of the Holy Roman Empire who through several decades were sent in to the Bohemian Kingdom to try and reassert Catholic order.
A decisive victory by mercenary troops against the Taborites though was had in 1434 that weakened the strength of this early push for religious reformation. A conciliatory alms was met upon both sides with Emperor Sigismund of Moravia being selected as King. A greater degree of stability resulted for the next several decades as greater freedoms of worship were permitted among the Czech people which took early Lutheran form but also gave rise to the early puritanical forms of later Calvinist worship.
For the remaining decades of the 15th century relative order presided under the leadership of King George of Podebrady beginning in 1448 until his death in 1471. In an unwise decision for a more favorable future of rule for the Czech citizens, King George allowed his daughter to marry the heir to the lesser developed Kingdom of Hungary. This resulted in the succession of Corvinus to the throne which drew the nations together and implemented a union of noble classes between the two states that again made conditions sufferable for the gentry class of society. This dual form of rule continued from Bohemia under King Vladislav during the turn of the century up until the next twenty years at which point all of Europe would become encumbered in the onset of the Protestant Reformation.
What effect the extension of governance with Hungary had was to solidify the region of Slovakia that had once fallen out of Czech power back to an assimilation with it’s northern neighbor. The official union though of Czechoslovakia wouldn’t occur until the fall of the Hapsburgs during WWI.